Sunday, July 14, 2013

BI

The bi or pi is a simple form, a flat disc with a central circular hole, first used in Neolithic times, mostly in eastern China. The original use of this object was ritual. The Hongshan culture in the north-east produced small bi in round or square form with rounded corners and two holes for suspension, but they also produced larger size discs, plain round, notched and collared, which are not well documented. Although they were in use during other Neolithic cultures, it was the Liangzhu culture during which they became prominent for their size and the number found in individual burials.

The bi is believed to be the symbol of Heaven and, like the cong, was used by shamans in religious ceremonies. The large numbers found in some well-documented tombs ascribe to the fact that the bi had significant meaning throughout life and into the after-life. The high value put on jade throughout history ensured that its use was reserved for the upper echelon of society as was clearly indicated by the tombs that contained large numbers of jade objects. The famous excavation of the Liangzhu culture tomb M20 at Fanshan, Yuhang, Zhejiang province, yielded forty-two bi discs, and tomb M3 at Sidun, Wujin county, Jiangsu province, held twenty-four. Most of the discs were of poor quality stone, with the finest quality reserved for prominent positions on the body.

During the Warring States period, glass was produced and used as a substitute for jade. It has been suggested that glass was regarded as a cheaper alternative to jade, and used by the middle strata of society. However, it should be noted that five glass bi were part of the inventory of tomb goods from the Western Han dynasty tomb of Zhao Mo (Hu), Emperor Wen, the second Nanyue king. His tomb held seventy-one discs and rings, and 139 pottery discs. This could lead to the assumption that perhaps at this time a certain number of bi were necessary for the burial ceremony, and allowed the use of pottery discs to make up the number.

During the Zhou and Han dynasties the decoration on bi reached the highest form of art. They were elaborately decorated in low and high-relief depicting religious themes, battle scenes, hunting, the dragon and phoenix and other animals. The bi continued to be used to a lesser degree through the following periods of Chinese history, and the original ritual use declined. Even today, in modern history, the circular design of the bi has significance and is popularly used in jewellery.

Shown below are some of the more unusual bi in our collection.

#1.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approximately 3000 - 2000 BC0.
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Yellow-green with red-brown areas.
Dimensions: Diameter 24.4 cm; thickness 1.3 cm.

The bi has three zones of design.  The outer rim of the bi is carved with the registers seen in Liangzhu cong, with alternating anthropomorphic and zoomorphic masks.  The central zone is recessed by approximately 3.5 mm, and has six zoomorphic masks surrounding a small bi.  This small bi is divided into two sections by a shallow channel and each section is in the form of a huang with pierced work depicting a zoomorphic mask.  The central perforation has been drilled from both sides, leaving a ridge in the middle.
 


The following discs are also very rare.  A plaque with similar pierced work is shown on p. 74 of the book Jade.  It is also shown on p. 132 of Jades from China by Angus Forsyth and Brian McElney, as being from the Peony Collection.




#2.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approximately 3000 - 2000 BC0.
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Yellow-green with red-brown areas.
Dimensions: Diameter 19.3 cm; thickness 3 mm.

The disc is elaborately decorated with incised line work on one side and plain on the reverse side.  It is divided into two sections by a shallow plain band.  The top half depicts a human figure wearing a feathered headdress.  The bottom half has a large monster mask with large round eyes and straight mouth with two long teeth protruding.





Tuesday, July 2, 2013

CONG

In the history of jade carving in China, the cong is the most impressive of the ritual type jades produced.  After the neolithic era the designs became more decorative, but cong were still a symbol of elitism.  The original purpose of the cong has been lost with time, but there has been conjecture with regard to its use.  Cong and bi are the most significant of the ritualistic jades. It is thought that the square shape of the cong represents the earth and the circular disc shape of the bi represents Heaven. The cong in fact embodies both shapes and is thought by some to be a means of directing qi energy, a means of communicating with higher forces, a spiritual passage between the living and the dead, and perhaps warding off evil. Shamanism played an important role in every facet of neolithic life, and no doubt dictated the ritual and ceremonial use of these objects.

The Liangzhu Culture produced the most recognizable form of the cong, and embodies the amazing skill of the jade workers who produced these enigmatic objects. In the main they were a slightly tapering prism, the central section of which was a tubular form protruding at each end. The centre was drilled from both ends, usually leaving a slight ridge where the drilling met. This ridge sometimes shows the thickness of the tubular drill used to produce it. The design most commonly seen has a shallow vertical channel on each side separating it into symmetrical halves, and each corner is decorated with masks crowned by horizontal bands. Two types of masks are used; one more simplified with small round eyes and straight mouth, generally referred to as anthropomorphic, while the other has large eyes, thought to be zoomorphic, and may be decorated with fine incised work. Some speculation has been made that the zoomorphic masks were the precursor to the taotie used in later bronze and jade art.

Cong vary greatly in height, some small enough to have perhaps been used as bracelets. Our collection comprises tall cong, squat cong, bracelet cong, double cong, sets of four to five cong which fit one inside the other, and triangular cong. The design has also been used as amulets or pendants in the form of beads, most commonly seen in the Liangzhu culture.

The Liangzhu culture is dated from around 3000 – 2000 BC, a period of approximately 1000 years. The best-known literature available in English gives very little idea of the variety of jades produced during this period. Our collection comprises a much larger variety of patterns than it is possible to show. However, we will attempt to share some of them here.
 
From what we have seen of the variety of Liangzhu jades, this is a complex culture, coming from so many different localities. To confuse the issue further there were other cultures running concurrently, using similar motifs and designs. The different localities have produced a variety of jades of varying colours, quality and style of carving.

 #1.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Cream, yellow, russet and brown.
Dimensions: H. 31.5 cm; W. 6 - 7.5 cm.
The jade has been polished to a fine finish, silky to the touch, and the surface worn so that any fine engraving is barely or not at all visible.  It shows a distinct taper and the protruding collar at each end is squared with rounded corners.  An unusual feature with the drilling is that the drill used from the top end is 5 cm. in diameter and 4 cm. from the bottom end, leaving no distinct ridge.  There are ten rows of simplified masks down each corner, crowned by two raised horizontal bands.  The small round eyes are barely visible and the mouth is formed by a short straight raised band.




#2.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Originally green, altered to reddish brown.
Dimensions: H. 31 cm; W. 7 - 7.6 cm.

The jade which was originally green has altered to a light reddish brown, and can be better seen in the close-up pictures.  The tubular form of the cong is made to be seen, protruding slightly at the top and bottom of the nine rows of highly defined masks on each corner.  The top and bottom rows are zoomorphic masks, and each alternate row has anthropomorphic masks crowned by a series of horizontal incised lines forming the crown.  The round eyes of these masks have a small line marking the corners of the eyes engraved on each side.  The central drilling of the cong has been executed from both ends, leaving a small ridge where it meets.

  

#3.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Brown to reddish brown.
Dimensions: H. 28.2 cm; W. 7.2 - 8.4 cm.

This is very different to the traditional design of Liangzhu cong.  The finish is fine and it is difficult to see what the original colour might have been.  The ends protrude with rounded corners and the body of the cong is divided into two registers of traditional patterns, different on each of the four sides.  The close-up pictures show some of the extremely fine incised work still visible which decorates the motifs carved in low relief.




#4.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Deep green.
Dimensions: H. 25 cm; W. 6.5 - 7 cm.

The fine incised line work decorating this cong sets it apart from most others produced during this period.  The lines are close together, forming intricate patterns.  It is composed of nine layers of masks alternating between anthropomorphic and zoomorphic.  The anthropomorphic masks are crowned by two bands, horizontally engraved, with a fine pattern between them.  The round eyes have a small dash engraved at each side and the masks have a patterned border running from the sides of the mouth up to the crown on each side.  The zoomorphic masks have large upturned eyes elaborately patterned, each bordered in the same way as the simplified anthropomorphic masks.  The drilling of the cong from top to bottom is similar to most Liangzhu cong, drilled from both ends and showing a slight ridge where it meets.



#5.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Antigorite.
Colour: Shades of brown, green and yellow.
Dimensions: H. 25.2 cm; W. 7.2 cm.

Although nephrite jade was the stone of choice, some pseudo-jade such as antigorite was used from neolithic times.  Antigorite is a form of serpentine and has a much finer crystal structure than nephrite.

The cylindrical form of the cong protrudes only slightly at each end, with seven layers of alternating anthropomorphic and zoomorphic masks on each corner forming the square prism.  The central drilling of the tube has been done from both ends, leaving a small ridge where it meets.  If there ever was any fine incised line decoration, it is no longer visible.



#6.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Light yellowish brown.
Dimensions: H. 20 cm; W. 7.5 - 9 cm.

The cong has six layers of alternating anthropomorphic and zoomorphic masks, with a protrusion at each end that has rounded corners.  The simplified masks are crowned by two bands, horizontally engraved, with an engraved pattern between them.  The large eyes of the zoomorphic masks have a bridge between them and are decorated with incised line work.  The central drill hole has been executed from both ends leaving a slight ridge where the drilling meets.



#7.
Period: Liangzhu culture (approx. 3000 - 2000 BC).
Medium: Nephrite jade.
Colour: Originally yellow-green, altered to mostly reddish brown.
Dimensions: H. 9.5 cm; W. 12.2 cm.

The tubular form protrudes slightly above the square prism formed by two layers of masks, the anthropomorphic mask above an elaborately decorated zoomorphic mask.  The incised work is superbly executed.with great precision, similar to cong #4 above.